| Introduction to Buddhism | ||
| Introduction to Buddhism |
Antecedents of Buddhism A. Civilization of the Indus Valley (2600-1800)Archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries revealed the existence of a highly developed urban culture in the Indus Valley, a culture equal to such great civilizations as those in Egypt or Mesopotamia. Numerous agricultural settlements, many of them dating back to 3500 BCE, even as far as 7000 BCE, seemed to have culminated around the beginning or middle of the third millennium in the formation and establishment of interconnected cities along the banks of the Indus river and its tributaries, the Punjab or Five Rivers area. Cities such as Harappa (with the discovery of which this culture was named the Harappan-culture) and Mohenjo-daro show similar signs of great sophistication in urban development.
Numerous round and square plaques found in archeological digs (the so-called ‘seals’) show evidence of a writing system. Up until the present, however, this writing remains undeciphered. The ‘seals’ also depict various apparently religious representations such as:
Apparently there is a link to the Sumerian civilization, a common origin is suspected. Moreover, it is known that commercial relations between both of them existed (e.g. during the reign of King Sargon of Akkad, i.e. 2250 BCE). Relations where suddenly cut off around 1800 BCE. The seals – which also were used as a kind of marker – are also found here. What exactly caused the demise of the Indus-valley Culture remains a mystery. Was it a gradual decline, or due to natural calamities? The theory that invading Indo-Aryan tribes destroyed this culture becomes less and less acceptable. It is more probable that the Aryans filled in an almost empty space. B. The Aryans (1500-1200 BCE)Nomadic tribes originating from Central Asia in succeeding waves “invade” Iran and the Indian Subcontinent (from the Pamir-mountains and/or the Hindu-Kush). These Indo-Iranians are split up into two branches who settle themselves in different areas: the Iranians and the Indo-Aryans.
Apparently this split-up involved a religious conflict: previously equal terms receive opposite meanings. Gradually the Indo-Aryan “invaders” spread over the Indian Subcontinent. They first populate the valleys of the Indus and the Upper Ganges, and later spread towards the south and the east. Some theories speak of a “cultural diffusion”[1] taking place. It is assumed that their religious opinions – to a large extend – can be found back in the Veda. C. The Holy VedaA collection of hymns, incantations, rituals, and spells. Probably originated between 1500 BCE (1200 BCE?) and 900 BCE (final redaction?). They where mainly passed on orally. The Holy Veda is contained in 4 ‘Books’: · Rg-veda: mostly hymns to the gods and natural elements · Sama-veda : extracts from the Rg-veda with musical notations · Yajur-veda: incantations and formulae · Atharva-veda: magical spells The Veda mainly points to a cult of the natural elements and carries signs of a nomadic and heroic attitude towards life. The most important gods are celestial gods (inherent to nomadic life, anthropomorphic); besides these there are also a number of impersonal god-figures. Among the most important we find:
Although the oldest literature (Rg-veda) puts a strong emphasis on the role of the Warrior-Class (Ksatriya), it is also possible to find traces in the Veda of opposition and duality between Warrior (ksatriya) and Priest (brahmin). D. Brahmanism (900-200 BCE)This period is characterized by the religious dominance of the Brahmin: he is the only one who is professionally entitled to perform the prescribed sacrifices. Little by little the sacrifice gains a central position in society. It even becomes predominant over the godhead to which the sacrifice is dedicated. The Vedic gods thus become subordinate to the actions of the Brahmin, who now has control over the totality of social life. 1. Brahmanistic Society Society is structured in horizontal layers: the first “caste”-system[3]. There are 4 main castes or classes: Brahmins: (priests) are the only ones to have a direct ‘contact’ with the sacred; without the brahmin there can be no sacrifice. No sacrifice would mean the disruption of order and eventually of society itself. The brahmin is the only one among all beings that is capable of attaining moksa (liberation). Ksatriyas: (warriors), the nobility, apparently they are the direct descendants of the Aryans (cfr. the Franks in Gaul) Vaisyas: farmers and merchants, as the backbone of society they are comparable to modern middle class. Sudras: the large mass of virtually unpropertied laborers, a class of servants and menials. From the lower classes or castes on could – through rebirth and karma – climb in social dignity and so finally, by being born into the brahmin-caste, attain liberation. Those who do not belong to any caste are deprived of the possibility of realization of moksa: they are the so-called “outcastes” or paria (Sanskrit ajati = not-born)[4] and foreigners. For them there is no liberation whatsoever. Besides the “official” religion, which was totally controlled by the brahmin, there also existed a number of religions of a shamanistic nature, probable related to the pre-Aryan religions (some even suggest relations with the Indus-Valley Culture). This ‘relic-devotion’ however retains its influence, even within the “official” religion. This is shown through persistent dualities between e.g. the Rg-veda and Atharva-veda, between Aranyaka and Brahmana, or even between Older and Younger Upanisads. The dualities can be synthesized as the duality between ritual and magic. 2. Literature
a) Brahmana: ritual interpretations of the Veda (900-600 BCE?); these texts emphasize the exceptional position of the brahmin as sole sacrificer and only authority with relation to the Veda. b) Aranyaka: lit. to be studied in the forest; these are esoteric interpretations of the vedic hymns and the ritual. c) Upanisads: mostly metaphysical questions concerning the Veda (more than 100 texts), they are presented as the direct teachings from teacher to pupil. Their dating is unclear and is classified in three periods: Older Upanisads 800-500 BCE, the Middle Upanisads 400-200 BCE; Younger Upanisads 200 BCE – 200 CE. The content is diverse: the philosophy even contains contradictory tendencies. Important to note is that within the Older Upanisads we already find religious themes that will also be treated in Buddhism (see box). The Upanisads set the brahmanistic sacrifice (yajña) against ‘knowledge’ (jñana). E. Reaction against BrahmanismA reaction against the dominant pressure of Brahmanism was unavoidable. On a social and political level the resistance came mainly from within the ksatriya-class but also from within the enriched commercial vaisya-class. On a religious level the reaction came from two different corners:
Various religious systems originated that rejected Brahmanism in its totality. These “heresies” or heterodox systems mostly arose from within the ksatriya-class (ca. 600-500 BCE). The most important ones are: Jainism: strict atomism. The atman or jiva is (through a very mechanical interpretation of karma) bound by all kinds of hindering ‘atoms’ of which it can only rid itself through severe asceticism. Non-violence (ahimsa) is one of the most important rules of asceticism. The founder is Mahavira Vardhamana, the 24th Tirthankara. Ajivika: strict determinism. Everything is guided by an inevitable fate. Ajivikas deny the function of karma (although not its existence). Moral action is of no use. Among its founders, Makkhali Gosala is mentioned. Carvaka/Lokayata: atheistic materialism. Sceptics/Sophists/Agnostics: in spread out formations in which it is not always clear if they overlap one another and the two aforementioned, or not. Buddhism: see further. All these heterodox systems have in common that they reject the established authority of the Veda, the predominant role of the brahmin-class, the ritual and its sacramentality and last but not least the social structure.
Brahmanism has defended itself by adopting various adaptations. On the one hand a social “enlightenment” was enforced through works such as Dharmasastra, Manusmrti (Laws of Manu), Arthasastra. Parallel to this a doctrinal suppleness was introduced: a gradual take-over and absorption of the most attractive issues of the “heresies” took place. Alongside the ritualistic and philosophical character a strong devotional current arises, mainly represented by the Bhagavad Gita, the later Upanisads and the Puranas. These innovations will gradually lead towards Hinduism (300-200 BCE), which however will not come in conflict with the authority of the Veda. So-called Hinduism is characterized by the formation of numerous sects. This newly developed henotheism centers around two poles:
Out of Hinduism the philosophical-religious systems of Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga will arise. These systems are therefore from a later date than Buddhism. Alongside with Brahmanism, Hinduism and the various “Śramanistic” movements, forms of the older popular religions keep existing. They are (later) indicated by the term Śakta (from the 3rd Century onwards) and will come to have a growing influence on the Indian religious life (namely as Tantra or Tantrism). [1] Cultural Diffusion: Process where an existing culture adopts the traits of another and the two eventually merge into a new culture. [2] Deus Otiosus: god that is neutral, disengaged, not concerned with the affairs of man. [3] Caste-system: The original Sanskrit word is ‘varna’ (lit. color) and denotes more of a ‘class’ than of ‘caste’. These varna are subdivided into numerous ‘jati’ , comparable to medieval guilds in Western society. Although the original idea seems to have been merely an organization of social order, in later times the system became quite rigid. [4] Ajati: Lit. not-born stands in contrast to the so-called dvijati (those who are twice-born: once through physical birth, once through initiation) which denotes those belonging to the varna-system. Contrary to popular belief the “caste”-system was not abolished with the foundation of the Republic of India. The discrimination towards “outcastes” however was made illegal. |
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