| Introduction to Buddhism | ||||
| Introduction to Buddhism
|
The Four Noble Truths: The Path that leads to the Cessation of Suffering
Traditionally these 8 anga’s (limbs, characteristics) are subdivided in three categories:
The Noble Eightfold Path is not a goal in itself. It is neither a code of behavior nor a list of do’s and don’ts. The Eightfold Path is a means to come to insight, an instrument that must lead towards practice of Buddhism and towards the realization of Nirvana. "This is the Path of the Right Middle which the Blessed One has set forth, which brings man to see and to know, which leads to peace, to discernment, to enlightenment, to Nibbana."
Prajña Wisdom
Wisdom is not a ‘knowing according to words’ (anubodha), but a direct knowing, a ‘penetrating’ knowledge (pativedha). Prajña as cessation of ignorance is thus synonymous to nirvana, the final enlightenment. This explains the importance of the concept, also in later developments of Buddhism, e.g. as Prajña-paramita, the ‘Perfection of Wisdom’. Prajña-paramita is sometimes translated as ‘Transcendental Wisdom’, which is correct in a literal sense, but nevertheless can lead to confusion seen the content of our western conception of ‘transcendent (al)’.
Right View Primarily applicable on the intellectual level, namely the realizing, knowing or knowing in relation to the doctrine. The main object of right view is pratitya samutpada (dependent origination) which comprises the nucleus of the Teaching, but also everything that circles around this nucleus is co-decisive: The three characteristics of existence The awareness of the true relation between subject/object The right function of kusala (wholesome) and akusala (unwholesome). The doctrine of anatta (non-self) as leading to sunyata (emptiness).
The level of insight reaches further than mere intellectual knowing: it is the being evident, or naturalness (yathabhutam) of experiencing, the actualization of the doctrinal contents. In wisdom, acting and knowing go hand in hand.
Right Thought (Right Disposition)
Is corollary to Right View, but on the level of volition: the will to realize liberation, the firm resolve, the consciously focusing on, the right orientation towards enlightenment. Here also, one can speak of a first worldly or daily level, and of a ‘transcendental’ level in which right thought occurs spontaneously and is no longer experienced as a contradistinction. Prajña then is, also in its most primary sense, not only discursive and intellectual but also volitional: this explains the direct influence on the karma-formations.
Sila Morality
Ethics, however important, are not determining for the realization of nirvana. They are an approach to, create the right inner circumstances, bring forth a karmically favorable attitude. As it is with most religions, ethics are in the first instance socially conditioned; in contradistinction to other religions Buddhist ethics are especially important as an instrument for knowledge and meditation.
Ethics are applied to three levels, which traditionally are words, deeds, and thoughts. Out of these, thoughts are karmically determining and thus take up the main position. ‘Evil’ that is performed in thoughts only has the same ‘karmic value’ as evil that is committed in words and deeds.
Right Speech
This has a double aspect:
Right Action
Inspired on the same principle as (3), but now applicable on physical, external actions. The emphasis is not put on the ‘interdiction’ itself but on the spiritual bearing of it. Thus, the wording "Thou shalt not kill" is not formulated; instead there is a "resolve not to take the life of any being".
The negative formulation "thou shalt not steal" will in Buddhist terms become "the resolve not to take what is not given".
Actions should be pragmatically placed in their context: e.g. one of the dramatic elements of samsaric existence is the fact that life becomes impossible without taking life. Actually, it is not the fact of killing itself which is karmically determining, but the intention, the attitude, the thought or mind, however superficial, from which the act of killing sprouts that is determining the karmic outcome. Rather than being casuistic, right action is concerned with a general line of action, the attitude in which actions are performed.
Right Livelihood
The searching and finding of the appropriate situation within the community, a situation that conforms with a Buddhist minded way of life: e.g. not practicing an occupation which on principle is in conflict with Buddhist ethics. Also, in whatever profession, keeping (as strict as possible) to Buddhist ethics.
The behavioral code of the Buddhist lay-person is traditionally established in the "Five Moralities" (pañca-sila): These are:
I take it upon myself to abstain from killing any
living
being Remarkable here is the fact that it is not a set of "prohibitions" externally imposed by a "supernatural power" (cfr. the Decalogue in Exodus), but a resolve arising out of an inner conviction which expresses itself as "I take it upon myself…"
Veramani sikkhapadam samadayami Abstaining from precept I take upon myself
Thus literally: I take upon me the precept to abstain from…
Samadhi Concentration-Contemplation
When Prajña in highest instance is the goal of the Eightfold Path, namely the cessation of ignorance, than it is sila which lays the foundation of it and creates the proper conditions in which samadhi (concentration/contemplation) can be realized. Thus, samadhi can be defined as the actual methodology and discipline to realize nirvana. The intention (of samadhi) is already contained in the term itself: samadhi means "bringing together, uniting", i.e. the bringing together of all mental factors into a ‘single-mindedness’.
One should not confuse samadhi with ‘meditation’, although both terms are intimately related. Meditation (dhyana, P. Jhana) is an ‘attention’ (See sub 7). Samadhi is the objective: the highest state of mind out of which one can attain insight into the fundamental ignorance. This explains the translation of the term samadhi as concentration and contemplation. (Latin: con-templari). Steps (6) and (7) should then mainly be seen as preparations to the actual samadhi (8). Samadhi thus is linked to (1): Right View, i.e. Prajña, so that the circle is closed and the Wheel of the Dharma keeps in motion.
Right Effort
Should not be confused with (2), Right Thought. Here it concerns more the producing of willpower, effort in its full deliberateness. This requires a continuous internal ‘critique’, without the excuse of the "other is to blame". One should exert oneself to:
Bodhyanga: "factors of [towards] enlightenment". These lie at the basis for acquiring wisdom; they are a series of ‘characteristics’ (dhamma) that contribute to the ‘great happiness of gods and humans’ (DN III-106). Different canons give different lists, mostly mentioned however are the seven sambodhyangani
Right Mindfulness
I.e. The Sharpening “focusing” of the mind, mindfulness of all that happens both inside our mind and externally, consciously ‘filtering’ data that enter and leave consciousness (watching without interpreting). Most meditation techniques (dhyana) fall under this heading. Characteristic for Buddhism is that these techniques are practiced for spiritual insight only, and not for any other purpose, such as gaining a psychic balance or a greater efficiency[1], or gaining ‘supernatural powers’.[2]
The only true goal of Buddhist meditation – in all its different aspects and forms – is samadhi and thus nirvana. Psychic balance or special powers can be regarded as side effects. If they are made into the goal, than every form of dhyana misses its right orientation with the danger of psychic derailment. Meditation techniques are traditionally divided in two main categories:
Both forms are closely related. Vipasyana is unthinkable without a preceding ‘calming’. In meditation, different meditation-objects can be used according the disposition of the meditator, e.g.:
The choice of a meditation-object depends mainly on, (a) the school to which the meditator addresses him/herself and (b) the meditation master who will select an object in function of ability, possibility and attainments of the meditator.
Also the physical circumstances are important for meditation: a suitable surrounding, the correct bodily posture, a good physical and psychological health.
The various Buddhist schools often emphasize ‘calming’ and ‘insight’ in a different way, which leads to a diversification concerning methods and results. Thus, it is generally accepted that samatha (calming) is gradually active and thus leads gradually to samadhi and nirvana, while vipasyana works by way of leaping, which means that it can lead to ‘sudden’ samadhi.
This distinction between ‘gradual’ and ‘sudden’ enlightenment even has its doctrinal consequences: e.g. Theravada knows both forms of meditation but nowadays emphasizes vipasyana. The schools of Tibetan Buddhism mostly prefer gradual enlightenment. The Japanese Zen-schools are also divided: sudden enlightenment by way of koan in Rinzai-Zen, gradual enlightenment by way of Zazen in Soto-Zen.
Right Concentration/contemplation
Is not to be confused with right mindfulness (= meditation) ! Samadhi is an attainment, a specific inner spiritual level, which is attained through the practice of meditation. Concentration is primarily the single-mindedness of thought: One-Mindedness eka-citta i-hsing isshin The nature of samadhi is difficult to put into words. One could say that meditation is the method, and that concentration is the result, that samadhi is the attainment of an inner situation of psychic balance in which one stays master over his own thoughts. As an approach to samadhi the texts mention the ‘Four Immeasurables or Four Divine Abodes (i.e. super-human or not bound by human existence) or states of mind. These are Loving-Kindness, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity. |
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The Path that leads to the Cessation of Suffering is the Noble
Eightfold Path. This is the way or method one has to follow to come to the
cessation of suffering through the cessation of ignorance. Although ethics
are part of this path, it is by no means an ethical code. The way extends
much further: moral behaviour by itself is not enough to realize
enlightenment. The Noble Eightfold Path is primarily a path that unfolds
in the mind, a way of knowing, a path of wisdom. Yet, this does not imply
that it is a mere