Buddhist Literature

Sources: Pali Canon

This is the only extent Indian Hinayana (Smaller Vehicle) canon. Its division can be regarded as a ‘model’ for other Indian and Chinese canons. It traditionally comprises of ‘Three Baskets’[1] (P. Tipitaka, Skt. Tripitaka).

Vinaya Pitaka Basket of the Discipline
Sutta Pitaka Basket of the Discourses
Abhidhamma Pitaka Basket of the Extended Teachings

A. Vinaya Pitaka

Is a collection of disciplinary rules by which monks and nuns have to abide. Mostly these rules are formulated in the framework of a story that describes the circumstances in which the rule was introduced. Originally the Buddha seemed weary of binding rules, e.g. he saw the ‘attachment to rules and rituals’ as one of the major hindrances on the path to liberation. However, under the pressure of social necessity the Vinaya rules were punctually introduced, at least where tradition is concerned. Textual studies based on language dating techniques reveal that most rules with relation to the monastic life are of a more recent date.

With his ‘parinirvana’ (i.e. decease) the Buddha gave permission to Ananda to change or abolish the rules, with the exception of the four ‘great’ rules. (not taking of life, not taking what is not given, celibacy, and…?) Since there was no unity among the monks of the assembly concerning the fourth great rule…all rules were retained.

Titles:

Mahavibhanga: ‘The Great Chapter’: is an exposition of the 227 transgressions a monk can commit. It is subdivided in:

Pacittiya: ‘Penitentions’
Patimokkha: ‘Confessional formulae’

Khandaka: ‘Expositions’: stories concerning the origination of the various rules. Exists of:

Mahavagga: ‘Great Selection’
Cullavagga: ‘Smaller Selection’

Parivara: ‘Appendix’: is a rehearsal and summary.

B. Sutta Pitaka

Expositions of the Teaching, in ‘Discourses’ (sutta) mostly attributed to the Buddha. The basic scheme of most sutta’s is fairly simple and stereotypical:

Introduction: “Thus have I heard” (Evam me suttam), referring to Ananda as the one reciting the text. This sentence is regarded as an authentication of the text.
Situation: place, company, central figure (“At that time the Blessed One stayed at…”);
Main body of the text. Situation of the problem and the answer of the Buddha (sometimes also Sariputra or Ananda). The build up of a text is often compared to the dialogues of Socrates according to Plato, i.e. midwifery.[2]
Approval by those who are present.

The sutta pitaka is divided in five nikaya (‘collections’):

Digha Nikaya: “Longer Discourses”
Majjhima Nikaya: “Middle Length Discourses”

(1) and (2) are the purest types of discourses, without any apparent order, they contain some of the oldest texts.

Samyutta Nikaya: “Grouped Discourses”
Anguttara Nikaya: “Numeric Discourses”

Grouped (from 1 up to 11) according the number of elements that are treated, e.g. 3 characteristics of existence, 4 noble truths, 5 aggregates, etc.

Khuddhaka Nikaya: Collection of “shorter pieces”

Comprises of texts with various natures, from various dates and of various importance. The most important and/or known are:

· Dhammapada: “The Path of the Dhamma”, “Verses of the Teaching”. Very popular in the West.

· Udana: “Formal Statements”. Short texts grouped around a theme.

· Itivuttaka: “Transmitted sayings”

· Sutta nipata: “Choice of Teachings”, most likely contains the oldest texts of the Pali Canon.

· Theragatha: “Verses of the Monks”, and

· Therigatha: “Verses of the Nuns”. Interesting and often moving religious lyrics of monks and nuns giving an account of their spiritual experiences.

· Jataka: “Rebirth Stories”. Stories that relate the former ‘lives’ of Gautama Buddha.

· … …

Often the same texts with slight variations are found in the different collections. Modern text critics are of the opinion that the oldest sources are to be found in the Digha Nikaya, the Majjhima Nikaya, the Udana, the Sutta Nipata and the Thera- and Therigatha.

C. Abhidhamma Pitaka

Systematic expositions of the Teaching; commentaries of a philosophical and scholastic nature, mostly of a more recent date.

Within the Pali tradition differences are found in the composition of the Abhidhamma Pitaka. E.g. the Birmese tradition knows a different composition than the Sri Lanka tradition. The following is the division according to the Sri Lanka edition:

Titles:

Dhammasangini “Exposition of the Elements of Existence”
Vibhanga “Subdivisions”
Kathavatthu “Disputes”
Puggalapaññati “Human Types”
Dhatukatha “Origin of Things”
Yamaka “Related Concepts”
Patthana “Causalities”

Since Pali doesn’t have its own writing system, the Pali Canon exists in several Indian and Southeast Asian writing systems, mostly dependent on the country in which the edition is published.

A complete text-critical edition in ‘our’ Roman script was edited by the British Pali Text Society, which is also responsible for an almost complete translation into English. Complete modern translations by Bhikhu Bodhi and Maurice Walshe of the Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikaya, and Samyutta Nikaya are also available. Many parts of the Pali Canon have also been translated into German (e.g. by Karl Neumann).

To give an impression of the size of the Pali Canon: it is about 15 times the size of the Bible (Old and New Testament). In the PTS edition it takes 58 volumes of about 350 pages each.

Pali literature is not limited to the Canon alone but is very alive in the tradition of commentaries on the Canon.

Two important non-canonical works are:

Milinda panha: “The Questions of King Menandros”
Visuddhi magga: “The Path of Purification”, by Buddhaghosa, 5^th century. A systematic, yet at times somewhat dogmatic scholastic exposition on the “orthodox” Theravada tradition.

[1] I.e. ‘collections’

[2] Midwifery: the art, act, or process of producing, bringing forth, or bringing about. (Merriam-Webster)