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Buddhist Literature

Sources: Sanskrit Canons

A. Hinayana

The canons of other schools of the Hinayana are largely identical to the Pali canonical tradition of the Theravada, however, they are however compiled in other languages or dialects (mostly Middle Indian).

The Vinaya Pitaka is found without too much variations in almost all schools.

The Sutta pitaka shows more variations, however, none of them being of a fundamental nature. In Sanskrit it is mostly referred to as the Agama Pitaka (Basket of the Spoken Word). The texts for the most part match each other, with some slight variations in the interpretations, emphasis and ranking order. Often Agama texts are longer than Sutta texts.

Concerning the Abhidhamma Pitaka there is no agreement with Abhidharma literature in Sanskrit. This could be explained by the later date of the redaction.

A lot of Sanskrit texts have been lost and only are extent in their Chinese and/or Tibetan translations.

Besides the Theravada school, the only other school with a completed (i.e. closed) canon is the Mulasarvastivada school.

Some of the remaining canonical texts in Sanskrit are:

Udana varga: “Book of Formal Statements”, mostly comparable to “Dhammapada”;
Madhyamagama: ± conform to Majjhima Nikaya;
Ekottaragama: ± conform to Anguttara Nikaya;
Pratimoksa sutra: is practically the same as the Patimokkha in the Vinaya Pitaka, with a commentary.

A great number of fragments are still being discovered, mostly in Sanskrit or Central Asian languages (Sogdian, Tokhari, Khotanese,…). All of these texts are known in full in their Chinese and/or Tibetan translations. Also a number of non-canonical works are saved in Sankrit.

B. Mahayana

A Mahayana Canon was never systematically or authoritatively formed. We could say there were a number of ‘elastic’ canons existing side by side, or collections that were accepted as canonical by consensus.

In the first place, a lot was taken over from the Hinayana canons, mainly from the Vinaya Pitaka and the Agama Pitaka. Concerning the Abhidharma Pitaka there was never any consensus. Besides this, the Mahayana canons have their own sutra’s, differing strongly in contents, atmosphere, and presentation from the Pali sutta’s.

While in the Hinayana texts the discourses are mostly presented as statements of the historical Buddha Gautama Sakyamuni, the Mahayana sutra’s will focus more on the experiential world of meditative Buddhas and Bodhisattva figures.

We notice how the traditional introduction (Thus have I heard) is kept, but that the situation of the text is much more majestic and mythical. Besides this there is not a single claim of historicity.

At first there was an attempt to maintain the traditional division into “Three Baskets”. Because of the tremendous input of texts not fitting into that limited frame, other divisions were sought. These divisions however never enjoyed a general authority since every school strove towards its own division of the “Canon”.

In the original Sanskrit relatively few texts were saved. Most of the extent ones were discovered in Nepal and are of a fairly recent date (9^th-10^th century). More recently however, older manuscripts or text versions were discovered in Central Asia and Japan.

Among the most important we find:

Saddharmapundarika sutra: “Lotus Sutra”

Contains elements of various eras. The final edition is believed to have taken place around 200 CE, but a lot of later interpolations are found within it. The Buddha here is not a historical figure, but the manifestation of an eternal, abstract ‘Buddhahood’. Further, it contains the doctrines of ‘Expedient Means’ (upaya) and of the ‘One Vehicle’ (ekayana).

Karandavyuha sutra: “Ornaments of the Basket Sutra”

Glorification of the Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara. Exists in 2 versions: an older one (translated in Chinese before 270 CE) in prose, and a younger one (which clearly shows Puranic, i.e. Hinduistic, influences) in verse.

Sukhavativyuha sutra: “Ornaments of the Realm of Bliss”

Also called the “Pure Land Sutra”. Central figure in this sutra is Amitabha Buddha. The sutra has two versions, a longer one (translated in Chinese for the first time in 148 CE) and a shorter one which is apparently younger.

Karunapundarika sutra: “Sutra of the Lotus of Compassion”

Central figure in this sutra is Buddha Padmottara.

Samadhiraja sutra: “Royal Samadhi Sutra”

Clearly posits the Teaching of Emptiness (sunyata)

Gandavyuha sutra: “Ornaments of the Wheel Sutra”

Very philosophical. It describes the spiritual quest of Sudhana. Central figure here is the Bodhisattva Mañjusri. This is the only extent Sanskrit part of the voluminous Avatamsaka Cycle.

Lankavatara sutra: ‘Sutra of the Experience on Lanka”

Important philosophical text (Yogacara philosophy and Zen), has a lot of interpolations.

Dasabhumika sutra: “Sutra of the 10 Grounds”

Describing the different stages and ways to come to the realization of Enlightenment.

Suvarnaprabhasa sutra: “Sutra of the Golden Radiance”

Combination of philosophical themes, legendary motives and numerous tantric interpolations. Not as spiritually exalted as other sutras, but very popular in Nepal, Tibet and Mongolia.

A very special place is reserved for the Prajñaparamita Cycle, a ‘body’ of texts devoted to the theme of the “Perfection of Wisdom”. This very extensive body is mainly devoted to the Mahayana theme of Sunyata or “Emptiness”. Contains among others:

Saptasatika-prajñaparamita sutra: PPS in 700 verses
Astasahasrika-prajñaparamita sutra: PPS in 8000 verses
Vajracchedika-prajñaparamita sutra: “Diamond Cutter Sutra”
Prajñaparamita-hridaya sutra: “Heart Sutra”