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Buddhist Philosophy

1. Prelude
2. Causality
3. Diversification
4. Nirvana
5. Hinayana/Mahayana
6. Madhyamaka and Nagarjuna
7. Yogacara and Vasubandhu
8. Avatamsaka - Hua-yen
9. Buddhist Logic
10. Buddhism in China
11. Sukhavati: Pure Land Buddhism

Causality

Causality is another important key-concept found within the Teaching of the Buddha. To understand it one needs to make a clear distinction between two forms of causal relations :

Hetu : is the determinant 'root'-cause that acts as a necessitating force; a cause without which nothing can come to origination (causa necessitans).

Pratyaya : (P. paccaya, Skr. also pratitya) is a conditioning circumstance, viz. a non-necessitating, but correlative inclining cause (conditio causalis). This cause is non-determinant and therefore leaves a chance for the expression of a 'free' (but in itself conditioned) will (cetana).

"Dependent Origination" (pratitya samutpada, P. paticca samuppada), literally "co-origination of causal conditioning" is worded as a conditioning and is therefore by no means deterministic. This has its repercussion on the Buddhist concept of karma : karma is neither deterministic nor fatalistic, but offers room for the conscious or unconscious volitional activity of man.

The 12 causal 'steps' or 'stages' (nidana) are usually summed up as follows :

The stereotyped expression of Pratitya Samutpada is as followed :

"[...] By and large, Kaccayana, this world is supported by (takes as its object) a polarity, that of existence and non-existence. But when one sees the origination of the world as it actually is with right discernment, 'non-existence' with reference to the world does not occur to one. When one sees the cessation of the world as it actually is with right discernment, 'existence' with reference to the world does not occur to one. By and large, Kaccayana, this world is in bondage to attachments, clingings (sustenances), and biases. But one such as this does not get involved with or cling to these attachments, clingings, fixations of awareness, biases or latent tendencies; nor is he resolved on 'my self'. He has no uncertainty or doubt that, when there is arising, only suffering is arising; and that when there is passing away, only suffering is passing away. In this, one's knowledge is independent of others. It is to this extend Kaccayana, that there is right view. 'Everything exists': that is one extreme. 'Everything doesn't exist': that is a second extreme. Avoiding these two extremes, the Tathagata teaches the Dhamma via the middle:

"From ignorance as a condition come karma formations;
From karma formations as a condition comes consciousness;
From consciousness as a condition comes personality;
From personality as a condition come the six senses;
From the six senses as a condition comes contact;
From contact as a condition comes perception;
From perception as a condition comes craving;
From craving as a condition comes attachment;
From attachment as a condition comes becoming;
From becoming as a condition comes birth;
From birth as a condition, then aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress and despair come into play.

Such is the origination of this entire mass of stress and suffering."

(SN, XXII 90-12)

The importance of this formulation is that there is no mentioning whatsoever of a permanent entity, of a concept such as atman, 'soul' or 'ego'. The unceasing individuation process that runs through Pratitya Samutpada is none else than the further-becoming or the further-flowing of the pañca-skandha.

The enumeration in addition has no chronological meaning but is a purely causal explanation of existential phenomena. One can therefore picture the 12 nidana's as arising simultaneous and/or overlapping one another.

One could also observe that the first six nidana's form an epistemological structure, while the six latter ones show existential characteristics. This clearly situates the relationship between the functioning of the 'mind' and its effect on 'existence'. In this sense it is understandable that the philosopher Nagarjuna concludes his discussion of the Pratitya Samutpada with upadana, attachment, which he views as the direct cause of suffering in the aspects of the process of becoming, birth, aging and death. After all, attachment has as its objects the five skandha's, which supply the building bricks for the experience of suffering. Hence the mentioning of the term 'pañcopadana-skandhah (P. e.g. Buddhaghosa : pañc' upadanakkhandha) literally the 'five aggregates of attachment', for the relationship that links upadana to the five skandha's. This relationship however also implies that the five skandha's are not only the object of attachment, but that through attachment these five aggregates are made into subject time and again.

The relationship 'ignorance-suffering-enlightenment' often reminds us of the metaphor of the cave, used by Plato to indicate the relationship between the world of shadows and the world of ideas. The beings in the cave, who only see the shadows, are then people chained to ignorance. If they could turn around towards the entrance of the cave, they would experience the light and true reality. But as it is with metaphors and parables, we should not infer to much from the cave-metaphor.

The great importance that Buddhism has laid on Pratitya Samutpada, becomes apparent from the multitude of text referrals which are intended to show that Dependent Origination forms the central core of the Teaching :

"He who sees pratitya samutpada, sees the Teaching; he who sees the Teaching, sees pratitya samutpada." (MN I, 191)

"He, monks, who sees pratitya samutpada, sees the Teaching; he who sees the Teaching, sees the Buddha." (Salistamba-sutra)

"Whoever perceives dependent arising also perceives suffering, its arising, its ceasing and the path [leading to its ceasing]." (Nagarjuna, MMK XXIV, 40)

 

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