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Buddhist Philosophy

Buddhism in China

Although Buddhism is already mentioned in China in the beginning of the 1st century, the beginning of any Chinese form of Buddhist philosophy can only be situated after the Han-Dynasty, i.e. during the period of division (the Three Kingdoms 220-265; the Six Dynasties 265-589; and the Northern Dynasties 385-581).

This period is characterized by the flourishing of Religious Taoism and so-called Neo-Taoism. It is especially within the circles of the latter that we can notice a remarkable likeness between on the one hand the teachings of Lao-tzu and Chuang-tzu and on the other hand Buddhism, with the main focal point being Prajñaparamita and Madhyamaka. Translations of Buddhist texts during this period are characterized by the frequent use of Taoist terminology.

In this way there arose a initial symbiosis - or at least a certain sympathy - between the Neo-Taoist thinkers and Buddhism. So, for example, we see:

Sun-ch'o (301-380)
who in his Tao Hsien Lun (Treatise on Buddhist Monks and Taoist Sages) compares seven 4th century Buddhist monks with the famous Seven Sages of the Bamboo Forest (3rd century Taoists).
Fan-yüeh (398-445)
who in his Hou Han Shu (History of the Later Han Dynasty) writes: "when we carefully study the [Buddhist] teachings concerning the purification of mind and the liberation from the shackles [of existence], and thereby putting an emphasis on the setting aside both 'emptiness' and 'being', we [come to the conclusion that the Buddhist teachings] belong to the same current as those of the Taoist scriptures.
Liu-ch'iu (438-495)
writes (quoted in Seng-yu's 'Extracts from the Tripitaka'): "East of the K'un-lun Mountains the term 'Great Unity' is used. Towards the west of Kashmir cheng-chüeh (sambodhi) is used. When one aspires for 'non-being' (wu) or attempts to 'emptiness' (k'ung), it is the same principle."

Newly imported terms such as sambodhi, sunyata, bhava/abhava are experienced as Taoist equivalents. This terminological equation (ko yi = method of analogy) combines the 'internal writings', i.e. the Buddhist sutras, with the 'external writings', namely Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu and even I-Ching.

Beginning of Chinese Buddhist philosophy

The beginning of Buddhist schools in China is shrouded in great obscurity. There is talk of the 'Six Houses and Seven Schools' (liu-chia ch'i-tsung), but original texts are very fragmentary and we have to refer to works of centuries later. Yet, it is clear that they were all strongly tinted by philosophy and that they based themselves on both Madhyamaka and Yogacara thought.

The first figure that stands out clearly and originally is Seng-chao (384-414). After his Taoist studies he became a disciple of the translator Kumarajiva, who introduced him to Madhyamaka-thought. Seng-chao however gave great importance to the Vimalakirti-nirdesa. His work was collected under the general title Chao-lun, yet its chapters are clearly conceived as separate entries. Seng-chao is regarded as the founder of the San-lun tsung (School of the Three Treatises, also the Madhyamaka-School), which bases itself on two works attributed to Nagarjuna: Madhyamika-sastra (MMK plus a commentary T 1564) and Dvadasadvara (the 'Twelve Gates', T 1568); and a work attributed to Nagarjuna's disciple Aryadeva: Sata-sastra ('Treatise in One Hundred Verses' T 1569).

Seng-chao's main interest focuses on the problems of time, space and movement. So, e.g., he states that dharmas are "neither in motion, nor in rest", but that their characteristic is pu-ch'ien, literally 'unchangeing': they have such a short momentary existence that they are more as static images following on each other in a tremendous speed.

The San-lun school mainly emphasizes three themes:

A polemic attitude towards all discursive claims and the refutation of all affirmative prepositions; absolute truth, which is the only ideal, is after all nisprapañca: 'inexpressible and unthinkable'.
A sharp distinction between relative truth and absolute truth: relative truth leads to 'knowing', absolute truth is wisdom. "Wisdom is no-knowledge" is by the way the title of Seng-chao's 3rd chapter.
The eightfold negation of Nagarjuna (introductory verses of MMK) which translated in Chinese state:

No Production
No Extinction
No Annihilation
No Permanence
No Unity
No Diversity
No Coming
No departure

Some quotations from Seng-chao:

"The true nature of dharmas is that they are neither in motion, nor at rest. Or, to state it differently: they are both in motion and in rest. To use the formulation of the Path of the Middle: by stating that there is both motion and rest, we fall into one of the two extremes. By stating that there is neither motion nor rest, we follow the Path of the Middle."

"All dharmas are truly non-existent in one sense and not non-existent in another sense. In the first point of view they are although apparently existing, de facto non-existing. In the second point of view they are although apparently non-existing, de facto not non-existing."

"That is why the Holy Man is as a hollow void. He cherishes no-knowledge. He remains in this world of impermanence and usefulness, however he abides in the realm of non-action (wu-wei). He is situated within the walls of what is expressible, and yet he lives in the open space that transcends all speach. He is silent and alone, empty and open; his form of existence cannot be covered in words. There remains nothing further to be said about him."

A second important figure is Tao-shêng (360-434), just as Seng-chao he is a disciple of Kumarajiva. Later he also becomes a follower of Hui-yüan (334-416, more about him later). Besides a profound knowledge of Madhyamaka, Tao-shêng also had a special interest in the Nirvana-sutra (Nieh-pan ching, T 374-7), especially concerning the problem of Buddha-nature and the icchantikas (Ch. [I-]ch'an-t'I, literally 'those who follow their own [desires and impulses]'), those beings who are without any merit and who, according to general tradition, cannot or don't wish to realize Enlightenment. According to the Nirvana-sutra also these beings will realize Enlightenment because of the presence of Buddha-nature in all beings, no matter who or what they are.

Tao-shêng, who was also familiar with Confucianist and Taoist teachings, is said to have provided a philosophical foundation to this vision of the sutra, making ample use of Chinese insights. Although only small fragments of his work remain by way of quotations, fact remains that he was discussed extensively by his contemporaries and even by the next generations.

Although Buddha-nature is present in all beings, it can not be expressed by words. Words are traps, 'bow-nets that are left behind once the fish is removed'. True insight is therefore without (beyond) words. Also in this sense Tao-shêng can be regarded as a precursor of the Chinese Ch'an School.

From this same vision on Buddha-nature, Tao-shêng concludes that Enlightenment is a 'sudden' event. As long as the mind remains captive in the chains of existence, no true, definitive Enlightenment is possible. The falling away of the last ties to existence (e.g. to the insight of 'being' and 'non-being') is a unique fact that has the duration of a single thought-moment (eka-ksana, Ch. I-nien), i.e. the limit value of the shortest possible time-experience. This notion of 'Sudden Enlightenment' stands against the notion of 'Gradual Enlightenment' in which enlightenment is seen as realizable by way of passing through a gradual series of levels or stages (bhumi). From Tao-shêng on forward this will become one of the most occurring themes of discussion within Mahayana Buddhism and a criterion for the (later) division into 'schools'.

Resistance against Buddhism

Right from its first introduction in China, Buddhism has met the resistance of Confucianist schools. It is after all clear that Buddhism stands in opposition to a great number of notions held by Confucianism, such as e.g. the 'celestial ruler', 'society', etc.

Thereby comes a growing Chinese nationalism during the 5th century as a reaction against the 'barbarian' rulers who conquered Northern China, and who generally where in favor of Buddhism. In these northern states there often developed a kind of cooperation between the Sangha, the Buddhist community, and the political powers, through which a great deal of corruption entered the monasteries and temples. To strengthen their influence, ambitious monks did not hesitate to attribute themselves with magical powers or perform impressive rituals.

Despite the initial sympathy from the Neo-Taoist thinkers, we can see a hostile reaction from the 'religious Taoists' around the beginning of the 5th century. To them, Buddhism was clearly the 'competition'.

In the also divided South of China the relations were different. Buddhist institutions and thinkers there profiled themselves as more independent in regards to the political powers and focused themselves more on meditation and study.

Ignited by the Confucianists and Taoists the first persecution of Buddhism in China took place during the Northern Wei (from 446 until 454), in which a great number of temples, statues and texts were destroyed.

But even after the persecution had lifted, the Confucianists kept an antagonistic attitude towards Buddhism. Most distinguished in this regard are especially Seng-yu (445-518) and Tao-hsüan (596-667). Fan-chen (450-515, also called Tzu-chen) attacked mostly the doctrine of karma and rebirth, which in the eyes of the Chinese was the most striking characteristic of Buddhism: ("the body is the soul and the soul perishes with the body" [sic]). It should be mentioned here that Hui-yüan, for the sake of propaganda, supplied a more simplistic, popular version of the karma and rebirth doctrine, in which he even introduced the non-Buddhist concept of a 'soul' (shen).

Besides this rejection of karma and rebirth, the attacks of Confucianism were mainly directed at:

at the unprovability and uncontrollability of the sutras, against the 'clear' objectively controllability of the Five Classics (Wu ching: namely 'Shu ching' (Canonical Book of Documents); Shih ching (Canonical Book of Songs); I ching (Canonical Book of Changes); Li Chi (Canon of Rites) and Ch'un-Ch'iu (Spring and Autumn Annals)); and the Four Books (Ssu Wu: Lun-yü (Analects of Confucius); Ta Hsüeh (The Great Learning); Chung Yung (The Teaching of the Middle); and Meng-tzu (the works of Mencius).

at the fact that Buddhism was insulting toward authority, in conflict with tradition and Chinese customs.

at the fact that Buddhism would disrupt the social system.

Also Taoism will gradually react more sharply against Buddhism, be it mainly through an attempt to imitate its outward appearance. From the 5th century onwards Taoism will try to structure itself by building monastic communities and hierarchies, by establishing a collection of scriptures (the Tao Tsang in 1120 volumes) and by taking into its pantheon popular bodhisattvas and Indian deities. It never made it into a firm and lasting organization though.