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Buddhist Philosophy

Diversification

The diversification of the Buddhist streams - reaching several climaxes between the 2nd Century BCE and the 5th Century CE - did not so much result from schisms concerning the fundamental doctrines - such as the Four Noble Truths or the doctrine of Dependent Co-Origination - as from the additions of elements not mentioned by the Buddha, or even elements which the Buddha refused to discuss.

At first, these additions remained peripheral, later however they became more far-reaching and radical (e.g. in the Pudgalavada-tradition where the concept of anatta was 'bypassed'). The diversification on the philosophical level concerns mainly two themes :

dharma: principle, supporting characteristic, basic element of cognition;
buddha: as historical figure, as transcendental being, as cosmic principle.

It is and remains agreed upon however that both are in fact identical, and thus interchangeable: "He who sees the Buddha, sees the Teaching; and he who sees the Teaching sees the Buddha", the Buddha more than once proclaimed. (e.g. in SN, IV-120)

Broadly speaking however, it could be said that the 'dharma-theme' was more emphasized within circles of monks and philosophers, whereas the 'buddha-theme' (certainly at the outset) was more appealing to lay-people, preachers and artists - as is apparent from the oldest archeological Buddhist findings in India. Also a lot of the early 'biographical' literature, e.g. Lalitavistara, Jataka's and Buddhacarita, refers mainly to the exemplary function of the 'buddha-theme'.

The diversification can (but therefore doesn't have to) happen by way of diverse, interactive points of view, coming from diverse angles, which will require us to look upon it in the light of a multidimensional complexity.

Apart then from disciplinary and/or soteriological problems, we can determine the following important points of view concerning the Teaching of the Buddha, without however being able to pinpoint in how far they are simultaneous or consecutive. Their chronology remains very uncertain.

A. Diversification according to the "addressee"

In the scriptures of the different schools we see that the Buddha addresses a great diversity of social and spiritual categories of listeners, thereby each time adapting his use of language and terminology in function of the social and/or educational level of his audience.

Grosso modo we can reduce this to three main groups of listeners:

the monks: with a strong emphasis on meditative states and levels;
lay-people: mainly concerning ethical questions;
the "specialists" (e.g. brahmins, sramana's, muni's, etc.): questions regarding worldview and metaphysics.

A strong and definitive demarcation between these three groups is however impossible, since the Teaching of the Buddha starts out with the anatta-criterion, a criterion that covers all further consequences.

Tensions between (1) and (2) have led to the first known 'schism' (during the so-called Second Council at Vaisali, be this historically correct or not...) whereby - for purely disciplinary reasons - the Elders (Sthaviravada) who strongly held to the letter of the Vinaya, parted with the Greater Community (Mahasanghika) which consisted for a great part, if not the majority, of lay-people.

Tensions between (1) and (3) could have been the cause for the origination of the "pre-Mahayana".

B. Diversification according to Abhidharma

The Abhidharma (Pali: Abhidhamma) in its broadest meaning is the "Extended Teaching", viz. the systematically and philosophically structured envelopment of the actual soteriology. This later 'extension' differs strongly from school to school as becomes apparent from the transmitted Abhidharma-pitaka's. Certain schools even went as far as rejecting every form of Abhidharma. (e.g. Sautrantika)

The two extremes of this diversification according to importance given to, or rejection of the Abhidharma are:

Buddhist 'Scholasticism', is most strongly represented by the Sarvastivada (e.g. their discussion concerning the dharma's, their classification, their existence and their time-value). Mostly practiced by monks and based on scriptural texts and commentaries. Leads towards abstraction and reduction to conceptual forms (e.g. buddha ( buddhata)
'Devotion' and especially 'popular devotion', most strongly emphasized by the lay. Traces of this can be found back in the oldest Buddhist archeological monuments (e.g. Bharhut and Sanchi) and in the Edicts of Emperor Ashoka. Institutionally they are mostly represented in the Mahasanghika-stream (e.g. Lokottaravada, with its emphasis on the transcendence and the "deification" of the historical Buddha)

The synchronicity of diversifications A and B leads to new perspectives apart from the distinction between the Smaller Vehicle (Hinayana) and the Greater Vehicle (Mahayana). (Philosophically very artificial at first). The distinction between the two streams is in fact much more complex than conventionally presented. Many correlations and interactions have played an important role in this process.

Further we see an evolution in the thinking and living of the Teaching, in which the distinction between Smaller and Greater Vehicle has given way to the emphasis of either Buddha or Teaching (Dharma).

C. Diversification according to Dharma and Buddha.

In connection to A and B we see the inclination towards an emphasis on either the expression of the Teaching or the 'person' of the Buddha:

1. Dharma: The historical Buddha is 'only' the bringer of the Teaching, which makes him 'subordinate' to the Teaching. This emphasis will be expressed the strongest in those currents that give importance to discussion and polemics, to scholasticism, ethichs and psychology, such as there are

Sarvastivada and Theravada (i.e. Smaller Vehicle)
The Prajñaparamita schools in India and China (i.e. Greater Vehicle) E. Conze uses the term "Wisdom-schools".

2. Buddha: The Teaching is the manifestation of Buddhahood, with its inherent, open to human experience, characteristics of Wisdom and Compassion. Here we notice however again a distinction between:

Gautama Buddha as exclusive Buddha, be it as a historical figure or as manifestation of an "Eternal Buddha": e.g. Theravada (Smaller Vehicle); Lotus-sutra, Zen (Greater Vehicle).
Non-historical (so-called 'meditative') Buddha-figures who assume a cosmic scale (up to present only Mahayana): e.g. Vairocana in Avatamsaka and Tantra; Amitabha in Sukhavativyuha.

We need to underline however that within this complexity the actual soteriology remains centered around the Four Noble Truths, of which the coherence should be looked upon as exclusively soteriological, certainly not ontological.

Most 'additions' or 'extensions' are of a cognitive and explanatory nature. Within Mahayana philosophy they are regarded as 'expedient means' (upaya-kausalya), as are all forms of appearance of the Teaching.