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Pure Land Buddhism

1. Pure Land Buddhism (1)
2. Pure Land Buddhism (2)
3. Jodo Shinshu: a Short Presentation (1)
4. Jodo Shinshu: a Short Presentation (2)
5. Tannisho: Introductory Essay
6. Shinran: a Brief Overview of his Life and Works

Tannisho: An Introductory Essay and Overview

Special Characteristics of Shinran’s Teaching of "Other-Power Nembutsu"

To Shinran (1173-1262) the teaching of Other-Power Nembutsu is the natural and consequent outcome of the teachings of the historical Buddha Gautama, of the various Mahayana teachers and in particular of the Seven Patriarchs of the Pure Land School, among whom he counts the Indian philosophers Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu.

Among the core-elements of Shinran’s interpretation we find the following:

The Pure Land (Skr. Sukhavati, Ch. Ching-t’u, J. Jodo) is identical to Nirvana (Enlightenment). For Shinran, it is not a transitional stage – as it is e.g. in the conventional Pure Land Tradition – but non-different from the Ultimate Perfect Enlightenment. The Pure Land is then no longer seen as a ‘Paradise in the West’ but more as an ‘abstract realm’. Amida (Amitabha-Amitayus) is not a Buddha, God or King that rules over this "Land"; he has no form and is not a "person" since he is the infinite "Buddha-body of the Teaching", i.e. dharmakaya.

Other-Power is the dynamic of Buddhahood or Infinite Enlightenment, which is expressed in the 18th Vow of the Larger Sutra (Sukhavativyuha-Sutra), the basic text of the Jodo Shinshu tradition: its essence being to unconditionally and indiscriminately free all beings from Suffering through Birth in the Pure Land. Seen from the perspective of the suffering being, Other-Power is the complete cessation or eradication of all personal calculations concerning salvation.

Birth in the Pure Land is therefore not different from the realization of Ultimate and Definitive Enlightenment, the fulfillment of the Dharma-body in its Dharma-nature (Skr. dharmata-dharmakaya; J. hossho-hosshin), the true self-nature (suchness) of things (Skr. bhuta-tathata; J. shinnyo), which is non-self (Skr. nairatmya; P. anatta; J. muga), emptiness (Skr. sunyata; J. ku), naturalness (Skr. svabhava, J. jinen).

Taking into consideration the weaknesses and hindrances within the human heart and mind - in this period of the Decadent Teaching (mappo), birth in the Pure Land can only be realized through the activity of Other-Power: the power which is necessarily inherent to the immeasurable, infinite Compassion/Wisdom of the Buddha, which by us is experienced as the ‘merit transference of [our] going [to the Pure Land]’ (J. oso-eko).

This ‘Birth’ is a spiritual event, not a biological phenomenon. It is therefore called no-birth. Its factuality takes place at the moment of physical death (where - for the person of shinjin – the karmic activity is exhausted), yet its ‘establishment’ is realized within this present existence as shinjin, or "The Heart/Mind of True Entrusting". The realization of this "mystical" state is expressed in the Nembutsu NAMU AMIDA BUTSU, which is not a mantra, but a ‘cry’ from the inner depths of beings that is evoked through Amida’s Other-Power as the physical, vocal expression of their "true and real" essence.

The absoluteness of Amida’s Other-Power as dharmakaya manifests itself in this world of suffering as Absolute Compassion in the Name Namu Amida Butsu, in which the non-duality of the world of suffering (samsara) and Buddhahood is comprised. The Name is verbalized in the nembutsu. Saying the nembutsu, especially after hearing the myogo, is not a petitioning, no meditation formula, not a ‘good work’ through which man can be liberated, but an expression of gratitude for the salvation offered by the Buddha of Infinite Light and Life.

Shinjin therefore is the natural activity of Amida’s maitri-karuna (Loving-Kindness/Compassion) – the activity of Amida’s Original Vow: J. hongan-riki – in the depths of the human heart/mind. It is the establishment of Birth in this present existence: through shinjin man is as it were born anew, be it with all of his desires, aversions and delusions (J. bonno) intact, yet without the karmic implications they normally bring. Shinjin is, in this existence, the reflection of the Pure Land.

All Buddha’s and Bodhisattva’s – in fact, all beings in their true nature, i.e. in their ‘emptiness’! – are contained in Amida, or Infinite Buddhahood. Therefore, all meditative and non-meditative practices are contained in Amida’s Great Practice of Compassion/Wisdom.

Since Infinite Buddhahood performs this Great Practice beyond every time/space dimension, all human moral, meditative, ascetic, and ritual practices are at the most auxiliary support of a social or psychological nature. Only the Heart/Mind of True Entrusting, which is awakened through Other-Power in the abysmal depths of man, is the effective cause of Birth in the Pure Land.

Birth in the Pure Land therefore signifies the becoming one with, or the participating in Infinite Buddhahood, i.e. in the compassionate activity of saving all beings. This then is the ‘merit transference in the aspect of returning [to the world of suffering]’ (J. genso-eko).

Infinite Buddhahood – which is the ultimate object and objective of Jodo Shinshu – is situated beyond the conceptual limitations of the human mind. It is thus non-selective (which differentiates it from the Christian concept of ‘grace’), naturally – be it latent – present and active in all beings, whether they are wise or foolish, good or evil, rich or poor, learned or illiterate, man or woman, young or old, meritorious or doomed, without any distinction of time or place. Other Power Nembutsu is thus Universal: it can be fully and wholly experienced in the most diverging historical or geographical situations, transcending all social or culturally limited external forms.

The person that truly ‘lives’ this teaching of Other-Power Nembutsu will give up all personal calculations and practices in relation to salvation – without any religious concern regarding reward or punishment, and in as far as his capabilities will allow – this, in order to devote himself to the spiritual, moral, social and material welfare of all beings. Whoever or however they may be…

The older Shinran: his works and interests

Shinran is said to have written a first version of his Kyogyoshinsho in 1224, at the age of 52. It is only in 1247 however, when he’s 75 years old, that he gave permission (to Senron) to have his work copied. This would suggest that it was only at that time that he considered his work as completed, although we cannot exclude the possibility that he made changes after that date.

In the years following 1246 until his death in 1262 he shows a great interest in works written by his fellow disciples under Honen. So, e.g., he copied Seikaku’s "Essentials on Faith Alone" (Yuishin-sho) six times, commenting on it five times (Yuishin-sho mon’i). Also the tracts from Ryukan (1148-1227) interest him.

Remarkable in this period is that he almost exclusively writes in Japanese, disregarding the more "learned" Chinese. He will go so far (in 1235) as to copy Seikaku’s Yuishin-sho in the Japanese Hirakana, although the original work is written in Kanji, thus making it more accessible to a broader public. Apparently he came to a point where he gave up all polemics with the monks and abbots of the established temples.

In 1248 he writes a first version of the Jodo-wasan and the Koso-wasan, which in 1255 he will revise and expand (a.o. with the Shozomatsu-wasan). Besides this he is very active in writing letters directed to his followers in the Kanto-area. It is during this period that we see the arising of a number of deviations and misinterpretations.

The first (and probably the worst) of these deviations is the idea that one can – or even should – commit evil in order to realize Birth in the Pure Land. This antinomian view, attributed to a certain Shinken, will place the whole beginning Nembutsu-movement in a bad daylight and will give rise to an intervention from the civil authorities. Shinran will have to clarify this towards those "authorities". His defense against this deviation exists in pointing out that all "wants, maybes or musts" are hakarai (calculations) which make shinjin (and therefore Birth) impossible. This problem will follow him for the rest of his life, and even after his death the antinomian temptation will strongly persist.

A second deviation is that of the so called "midnight teaching", i.e. that beside the open and public (exoteric) Tariki-Nembutsu teaching, there would exist another ‘esoteric’ teaching. This claim was adopted by Shinran’s own son, Zenran, and led to a conflict between father and son.

Outside these doctrinal problems, Shinran’s health started to decline. He was nursed by his daughter Kakushin-ni, who would remain at his side until the moment of his death.

Between his 83rd and 86th year Shinran dedicated all his strength to writing 10 tractates (all in Japanese) and a number of commentaries on the works of his friends and fellow disciples. From this period 42 of his letters were recovered.

In 1258 he will extend his thoughts on the concept of Jinen-honi (naturalness). The naturalness (short for dharmic as-it-is-ness) of things is none other than Other-Power. This corresponds closely to the rock-bottom approach of the Nembutsu teaching that Shinran had been following since 1248. It leads him to the presupposition of a fundamental non-duality, which he translates as "being not-different from Maitreya". In 1258 he will take the concept of non-duality a step further and will word it as "Being equal to Tathagata".

Another aspect he will extend further is the demythologization of Amida Buddha, which from then on will be represented as Dharmakaya, as Universal Enlightenment and as Absolute Tariki (Other-Power).

This further extension of concepts and theme’s – which Shinran already introduced in his KGSS – characterize his later works. We can thus observe a clear evolution of Shinran’s thought, an evolution that in his last years led him to extreme Mahayana-ideas.

"Jodo-Shinshu"

All schools based on Shinran’s transmission of the teaching are grouped under the heading of Jodo-Shinshu. The most widely used translation for Jodo-Shinshu is "True School of the Pure Land". There are however other possible interpretations, given the fact that the term "shu" has multiple meanings, e.g. "path, way, essence". This makes that e.g. the Shin Buddhist Translation Series translates Jodo-Shinshu as "the True Essence of the Pure Land Way".

Shinran does not use the term in relation to "school" or "sect", instead he uses it for the "vision" that Birth in the Pure Land can only be realized through Other-Power, hereby referring to the teaching that he was taught by Honen: "shin shu kyo sho ko hen shu" ("Establishing [referring to Honen] in this remote land the teaching and realization that are the true essence of the Pure Land Way") (Shoshinge 28c).

Shinran did not conceive of himself as being the founder of a new Buddhist School. His limited use of the term therefore points to the fact that for him it was not a referral to an "institution" but rather the proclamation of the Other-Power-Nembutsu.

In the course of the centuries that followed a number of headings were used to denote the "Shinran-school": e.g. the "Monto-shu", or School of Followers (since emphasis was put on the followers and their non-clerical character: no monks, no monasteries); or the "Ikko-shu" i.e. "Exclusive School" (referring to ‘Only Amida, Only Other-Power, Only Shinjin’).

Jodo-Shinshu after Shinran’s death

The fact that Shinran did not set up an organizational structure during his lifetime, lead to the fact that – at the moment of his death in 1262 – his followers were left without an authoritative institution. This brought on a great deal of confusion among the followers of the Tariki-Nembutsu, especially in the Kanto-area.

Already during his lifetime Shinran was confronted with the fact that his approach of Great Compassion gave rise to various, often opportunistic, interpretations and misconceptions. In the letters written during his last years we see how Shinran strongly opposes these deviating views. Whether this was done successfully can however be doubted since a number of these teachings remained popular, even after Shinran’s death.

The most important – and difficult - deviation was the re-occurring antinomianism of so-called "Licensed Evil". This view did not only hold that the conscious performance of unwholesome acts had no influence on the Activity of Amida’s Vow-Power, but also that it was in fact wholesome to commit as many as possible unwholesome acts (i.e. conventionally disapproved acts). The Tendai-monasteries of Mt. Hiei already blamed Honen for holding this view. The fear for this kind of antinomianism certainly contributed to the conviction and exile of Honen and his most important disciples, despite Honen’s defense in 1204 (in the so-called Seven-article Pledge). In Article 4 of this pledge Honen formally condemned – probably under the moral pressure of the Tendai - certain views propagated by some of his disciples, apparently to no avail…

Another tempting deviation (one to which Shinran’s own son Zenran succumbed) was that besides the teaching for "ordinary people", there existed another – esoteric - "midnight-teaching" reserved for the initiated. Holding out a "secret" teaching has throughout the centuries been an instrument of "power". While his father stayed in Kyoto, Zenran must have obtained quite a following for his views. Up until the 14th century this "heresy" is said to have persisted, despite the official measures against it and the public rejection by Shinran and his descendants.

One can easily understand the attitude of the Kamakura-government (Bakufu). Looking upon itself as the maintainer of social and moral order, they imposed severe measures and took harsh action against Nembutsu-followers, who by the way were all seen under the same heading.

Two socio-cultural phenomena contributed to this persecution:

Popular devotion towards the many local deities and the numerous Buddha’s and Bodhisattva’s in the Tendai and Shinto traditions. This usually went hand in hand with the selling of good luck charms, calculations of auspicious days, incantations, etc. which were all condemned by Shinran as superstition.

The behavior of the yamabushi – wandering mountain ascetics – who where nominally related to the Tendai and Shingon temples but in actuality were strongly shamanistic. The yamabushi did not hesitate to make use of populist fears and anxieties. Among them there appeared to be some Nembutsu-followers who lively - and apparently successfully - propagated and exercised "licensed evil". Often they were brought in connection to the Pure Land movement of Ippen (1239-1289). In his teachings Ippen stated that the world, especially in this mappo-era, had a great need for the Nembutsu, and that therefore the nembutsu should be propagated to all manifestations of Buddhahood, thereby using "all" possible means. One of their favorite means of propagation was writing down the Nembutsu on slips of paper and than distributing them – sometimes even forcefully. This "using all possible means" together with the roaming around of the Ji-shu adepts (Ippen’s followers) was not appreciated by the Bakufu.

Both the propagation of antinomianism and the behavior of the yamabushi contributed to the repeated prohibition of the Nembutsu-teaching.

But this doctrinal confusion – and the attendant political difficulties – were not the only problem with which the early Jodo-Shinshu had to deal. The lack of an "umbrella-organization" made the communication and consensus between the different temples and their temple-priests very difficult. The only thing they had in common was the grave of the "Founder".

It was around this gravesite that – thanks to Shinran’s daughter Kakushin-ni (1224-1283) - the first organizational form was established. When she inherited an estate – east of Kyoto - from her first husband – belonging to the Otani family – she had her father’s ashes reburied there; she erected a headstone and placed a wooden image and a painting of Shinran at the site. This Otani-byodo soon became the focus of worship as it brought together the followers (monto) from all the distant provinces. Over the gravesite the followers then build a six-cornered mausoleum which was extended several times over the following years.

How all of this actually took place is fairly unclear since the sources are often contradictory. The tradition unanimously accepts that Shinran is the first "Head Abbot", a title which he never claimed. About the second Head Abbot the sources diverge: is it Zenran’s son Nyoshin, or is it Kakushin’s son Kakue? This last hypothesis does not enjoy too much (Japanese) preference because it would imply that the lineage would be matrilineal. The dilemma is solved by Kakushin’s grandson, Kakunyo (son of Kakue) when he stated that he (or his father) received the transmission of the teaching directly from Nyoshin.

Whatever the truth is concerning this matter, it is clear that Kakunyo (1270-1351) played an important role in the establishment of the Hongwanji-temple. One can see in him the first efficient organizer of the Jodo-Shinshu. Not only did he establish clear agreements with the monto, he also introduced the name Hongwanji for the grave-temple and secured the official recognition for it as a temple. Besides this, he tried to group all Jodo-Shinshu temples under his authority, with the Hongwanji as the center.

The Author of Tannisho

Tannisho is neither signed nor dated. It is as if the author deliberately hid behind the words of Shinran. All that we can conclude from the text itself is:

• that the author was a direct disciple of Shinran,
   
• that the author lived in a far off province from where he undertook a voyage to Kyoto in order to meet Shinran,
   
• that the author felt that his life was about to end.

It is during the Tokugawa-era and especially in the 18th century that academical Jodo-Shinshu studies occupied themselves text-critically with the authorship of Tannisho. Three names were brought foreward as the possible author:

Kakunyo: (1270-1351), in whose works were found a great number of parallel passages with the Tannisho. This thesis, pointed out by Gessen (1671-1729) and Senkei (1720-1797), is at present generally rejected. The author of Tannisho was after all clearly a direct disciple of Shinran. Kakunyo, grandson of Kakushin-ni, was born 8 years after Shinran’s death, which makes that it was impossible for him to fill in that condition.

Nyoshin: (1239-1300) was the son of Zenran and thus Shinran’s grandson. He lived with Shinran for a long time and was taught by him. Nyoshin had a very good reputation as teacher and as a wise man. He taught e.g. Kakunyo. Advocates who claimed his authorship – which presents us with a more solid basis than that of Kakunyo - were Eku (1644-1722), Enin (1715-1789), and Jinrei (1749-1817).

Yuien: (?-1290) was first mentioned as the possible author by Genchi (1734-1795) and Ryosho (1788-1842). The starting point of their argumentation contained 3 points:

• The direct discipleship of Yuien
   
• The fact that Yuien lived in a far-off province and that it was historically proven that he made a journey to Kyoto
   
• The fact that Yuien is the only name that is mentioned in the Tannisho.

At present it is therefore generally recognized that Yuien is the probable author of Tannisho.

Yuien-bo (bo refers to a monk’s name) is said to have lived in Kawada (also Kawawada), a place Northeast of present-day Tokyo, in the Kanto-area. In this village there is a temple – Hobutsu-ji – which is said to have been build on the place where Yuien lived. On the pedestal of the Buddha-image in that temple it is written: "Yuien, a man of great virtue, founder of this temple, died in Shoo 3." Shoo 3 refers to 1290, 28 years after Shinran’s death. If Yuien is indeed the author, than we can conclude from this that the Tannisho was written somewhere between 1262 (Shinran’s death) and 1290.

In Bokieshi, a biography of Kakunyo, written by his second son Jukaku, it is told that Yuien of Kawada met Kakunyo in Kyoto in 1288. Kakunyo is said to have asked Yuien a great number of questions, mainly concerning the problem of good and evil. Another tradition says that Kakunyo’s uncle-through-marriage became a Nembutsu follower after a conversation with Yuien. Further, nothing is known about Yuien’s personality.

Contents of Tannisho

A clear picture concerning the confusions on both the doctrinal and organizational levels is presented in the Tannisho ("Lamenting the Divergences").

As the author himself emphasizes, the intent of the work is to point out the misconceptions and deviations, and to correct them by means of Shinran’s own words, thereby avoiding all other interpretations. It is remarkable how the propositions and themes that Yuien cites – a few minor details excluded – accurately reflect Shinran’s thought in his later years. Remarkable, because for some obscure reason the "Prologue"- in which the intent of the work is clarified – is written in Classical Chinese, and not in Japanese as the remainder of the text.

The first part of the Tannisho underlines the strong points of Shinran’s teaching.

Shinjin and Nembutsu transcend all possible practices because they are the Great Practice of Amida itself.

"True entrusting alone is essential…there is no evil which can obstruct the working of Amida’s Primal Vow."

The experience of Shinjin and Nembutsu is more important than mere intellectual knowledge.

"Now, whether you accept the nembutsu, entrusting yourself to it, or reject it, that is your own decision."

The Vow of Other-Power transcends the concepts of good and evil.

"Even a good person attains birth in the Pure Land, how much more so the evil person."

People’s compassion is powerless, only Amida’s Great Compassion is effective.

"In this life no matter how much pity and sympathy we may feel for others, it is impossible to help another as we truly wish; thus our compassion is inconsistent and limited."

Self-power practices are to be discarded as useless.

"I, Shinran, have never even once uttered the nembutsu for the sake of my father or mother."

There is no human authority; only Amida’s Vow-Power, i.e. the harmony with True Reality or "naturalness" is the guideline.

"As for myself, Shinran, I do not have a single disciple."

The Nembutsu offers benefits to people, such as e.g. the alleviation of karmic consequence.

"In the person of nembutsu opens up the great path of unobstructed freedom."

The Nembutsu as non-self-power cannot be regarded as a practice or as a good work.

"Since it is practiced without my calculation, it is "non-practice". Since it is also not a good created by my calculation, it is "non-good".

The Nembutsu has an impact on our blind passions, although we do not necessarily experience that immediately.

"Impossible it seems to leave this old house of agitation…"

The Nembutsu transcends all conceptualizations.

"In the Nembutsu no selfworking is true working; it is beyond description, explanation and conceivability."

The second part of the Tannisho deals directly with what the author feels is contradictory to Shinran’s views and with those issues that are causing commotion among the followers.

Theorizing about the nature of the Nembutsu is superfluous and sometimes even harmful.

"When we realize that the saying of Nembutsu occurs because of the Tathagata’s working, since our own calculation is not involved, we are in accord with the Primal Vow and will be born in the land of True Fulfillment."

The deeply felt uttering of the Nembutsu takes precedence over the reading and studying of texts.

"Is knowledge meant to be no more than a means of defending against criticism and for engaging in arguments and debates?"

Not fearing to commit unwholesome acts is only the result of unwholesome karma; if one commits an unwholesome act intentionally, than this is contributed through self-power.

"Do not take poison just because there is an antidote!"

Some claim that a single utterance of the Nembutsu would eradicate the unwholesome karma of eight billion kalpa’s. Yet, if this is done intentionally or out of our own calculation, than it is self-power.

"This shows the lack of true entrusting to [that is] Other-Power"

Can Enlightenment be realized with this present body as is claimed by Shingon and Tendai? These difficult practices are unattainable for ordinary beings.

"In contrast, the enlightenment that unfolds in the next birth is the essence of the Pure Land teaching of Other Power; it is the way of true entrusting which is settled."

The "turning-of-mind" can happen in various ways and is not always the result of Other Power. Also here, non-calculation is a sign of naturalness.

"The turning-of-mind refers to the transformation of heart of those ignorant of the true teaching of the Primal Vow of Other Power who, being granted Amida’s true wisdom and realizing the impossibility of attaining birth with everyday mind, abandons the old mind and entrusts himself to the Primal Vow."

It has been said that those who are not born in the land of Fulfillment, are born in the hellish realms. This view is utter foolishness and is neither mentioned in the Sutra’s nor in the Commentaries.

"I was taught that people who lack true entrusting because they doubt the Primal Vow are born in the borderland where they atone for the evil karma of doubt and ultimately gain enlightenment in the land of Fulfillment."

The story that says we become either a great or a small Buddha according to our offerings is absurd; after Birth in the Pure Land things are exactly as they are (i.e. suchness) and all forms are transcended.

"When one attains enlightenment of dharma-as-it-is, how can size be a factor, since such shapes as long or short, square or round, do not exist, and it transcends color, whether blue, yellow, red, white, or black?"

EPILOGUE: The epilogue contains various argumentations concerning shinjin and some special utterances of the Shonin: e.g.

"The master constantly said, "When I ponder on the compassionate Vow of Amida, established through five kalpas of profound thought, it was for myself, Shinran, alone".

Because of the risk of being accused of antinomianism – which is not an unlikely thing when one reads the Tannisho unprepared – Yuien-bo ends his work with a somehow surprising warning: "Thus, this is called Tannisho: Lamenting the Deviations. It should not be shown to outsiders."

APPENDIX: this is probably a later addition to the text since it is not present in all the extant versions of the Tannisho. It is a "record" about the exile of Honen and his most important disciples, among which we find Shinran. It has actually not much to do with the content of Tannisho and could probably be a historical side note of a "reader".

Rennyo Shonin, the 8th Abbot of the Hongwanji, who in the 15th century admired and copied this text, added the following colofon: "This sacred writing is an important scripture in our tradition. It should not be indiscriminately shown to any who lack past karmic good."

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